A bit of background
The latest OG21 strategy document has outlined that after 2030, the production of Norwegian offshore oil and gas fields will increasingly be dominated by new fields. Due to fewer large oil and gas discoveries, attention has turned to smaller, less economically viable discoveries. Cost-efficient development of most of those resource would require tiebacks and utilisation of already established infrastructure.
A tieback is a connection between a satellite field and the processing facility of another field. Future marginal subsea tieback developments may add up to 4 bnboe (billion NOK barrel oil equivalent) from breakeven prices of 50-90 USD/bbl with current solutions. Besides reducing costs, a tieback will also have the potential to reduce CO2 emissions and carbon footprint by extending the lifetime of production infrastructure and reducing the number of required facilities. Furthermore, a tieback will increase utilisation of a facility after plateau production of the main field. This, in turn, will lead to higher overall process efficiency.
However, transporting the produced reservoir streams over very long distances on irregular terrain and with cold ambient temperatures poses flow assurance challenges. Conditions of high pressure and low temperature can cause the formation of hydrate particles that can lead to increased pressure drop or plugging of flowlines. This can in turn hinder optimal extraction of hydrocarbons, or cause equipment malfunction.
Traditional measures to address hydrate formation involve chemical-based technologies, costly thermal insulation, or energy intensive pipeline heating. All these alternatives implicate environmental hazards or rather high CO2 emissions. This is contrary to LowEmission’s target, which aims at decreasing the offshore environmental footprint. The so-called Cold Flow technology is an upcoming alternative which offers both less costs, footprint and emissions during operation. The Cold Flow concept enables the flow of hydrocarbon production fluids at thermodynamic equilibrium in uninsulated pipelines, without the help of chemical modifiers, active or passive heating, or heat-retention schemes.
The Cold Flow Technology
In the Cold Flow concept, hydrate particles are induced in a controlled manner in a dedicated reactor-cooler unit. These so-called dry-hydrate particles will form a stable liquid slurry that can easily be transported and does not agglomerate and plug the pipe downstream of the cooler. It can be defined as a flow of non-adhesive and non-cohesive hydrate particles dispersed in the production fluids.
As part of my PhD research, we performed a case study to investigate the concept’s limitations and to quantify the environmental performance of Cold Flow and compare with traditional field development options. The case was developed with input from industry partners and comprises of an oil field in the northern region that might be produced with a local dedicated FPSO (Floating production, storage and offloading unit) or a 100 km tieback solution to the closest suitable existing offshore processing facility. Cold Flow as well as different heating and insulation options were considered as hydrate prevention technologies for the tieback solution. Also, two different reservoir recovery methods were considered, namely gas injection and water injection. A realistic model of the subsea system and flowlines was created in the commercial dynamic flow simulator LedaFlow to study the fields flow performance and concept feasibility during the lifetime of the project.
Carbon footprint, energy consumption, and related CO2 emissions were estimated and compared for all concepts. The carbon footprint estimates were based on the main components’ weight and a carbon emission factor, assuming steel as main material. Details regarding the emission factor and estimating the weight of construction can be found in our previous works. The power consumption during operation was based on simplified models for the main processing units covering pumps, compressors, heating, etc. Results were translated into emissions assuming an emission factor of 5000 tonnes CO2/MW*year when gas turbines are used for power generation. The detailed procedure of calculating the energy consumptions of the main contributors for each case is also presented in our paper to be published at the 41st International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering (OMAE 2022).
Results
Results show that in comparison with traditional alternatives, this technology could reduce energy demand by about 385,500 MWh and 370,600 MWh for gas and water injection, respectively. This corresponds to reduced lifetime CO2 emissions of 22% and 30% for the gas and water injection scenarios when compared against a standalone FPSO development. These reductions are equivalent to around 0.3 MtCO2 for both scenarios, which is a great achievement. Please see Figure 1 and Figure 2 .
This technology offers many other advantages. Cold Flow can be more cost-effective and simpler to maintain and implement in comparison with traditional approaches. All large and costly subsea power consumers along the flowline (for heating and boosting, for example) may be removed depending on the scenario. In addition, results
indicate that the technology is not only relevant for liquid-dominated production (here water
injection, which was the initial design case) but also for production with higher gas rates. This
will extend the possible application area of the technology.
In summary, we can expect the Cold Flow technology to be an important option for many future field developments standing for a considerable part of the required emission reduction. In combination with a cost advantage, this will enable field developments that otherwise would have been discarded. For more details, we refer to our publications at OMAE 2022.
References
- OG21 – Norway’s oil and gas technology strategy for the 21st century, https://www.og21.no/
contentassets/1ba9f0520c0e449b89a429c8960b88d2/og21_rapport_innside_enkelt.pdf - Eyni, L., Stanko, M., Schümann, H., 2021, Methods for Early-Phase Planning of Offshore Fields
Considering Environmental Performance, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3935491 - Schümann, H., Eyni, L., Fattahi, M., 2021, DSP8_2021_3 Feasibility and environmental analysis for
a 100 km tie-back solution with cold-flow, Project memo, LowEmission center, SINTEF - “Technical and environmental evaluation of a hydrate cold flow technique to produce an oil
reservoir using a ling tie-back and comparison against traditional development concepts” as part
of the 41st International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering (OMAE 2022) in
Hamburg, Germany in June 2022.
Comments
Cold flow is not feasible because of many other routes to hydrate as well as sublimation of hydrate particle. See some of my papers on hydrate non-equilibrium
Publications from the latest 10 years
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bjorn_Kvamme/contributions
Selected relevant publications in refereed scientific journals from the latest 8 years
1. Khuram Baig, Bjørn kvamme, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Jordan Bauman, The impact of water/hydrate film thickness on the kinetic rate of mixed hydrate formation during co2 injection into ch4 hydrate, AIChE journal Volume 61, Issue 11, November 2015 Pages 3944–3957
2. Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., Stensholt, S., Sjøblom, S., Investigating chemical potential of water and H2S dissolved into CO2 using molecular dynamics simulations and Gibbs-Duhem relation, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2015, 60, pp 2906-2914
3. Kvamme, B., Feasibility of simultaneous CO2 storage and CH4 production from natural gas hydrate using mixtures of CO2 and N2, Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 2015, 93(8): 897-905
4. Kvamme, B., Thermodynamic limitations of the CO2/N2 mixture injected into CH4 hydrate in the Ignik Sikumi field trial, 2016, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2016, 61 (3), pp 1280–1295
5. Olsen, Richard; Leirvik, Kim; Kvamme, Bjørn; Kuznetsova, Tatiana, “A molecular dynamics study of triethylene glycol on a hydrated calcite surface”, Langmuir, 2015, 31 (31), pp 8606–8617
6. Richard Olsen, Bjørn Kvamme, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Hydrogen bond lifetimes and statistics of aqueous mono-, di- and tri-ethylene glycol, Thermodynamics and Molecular-Scale Phenomena, AIChE Journal , 63, 5, 2017, 1674-1689
7. Kuznetsova, T., Jensen, B., Kvamme, B., Sjøblom, S., Water wetting surfaces as hydrate promotes during transport of carbon dioxide with impurities, 2015, PCCP, 17, 12683-12697
8. Olsen, R., Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., Free energy of solvation and Henry’s law solubility constants for mono-, di- andtri-ethylene glycol in water and methane, 2015, Fluid Phase Equilibria, Volume 418, 25 June 2016, Pages 152–159
9. Sjøblom, S., Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., A Weeks-Chandler-Andersen based Potential Fitting Procedure forMolecular Dynamics Simulations of the Calcite-Water Interface, 2015, Fluid Phase Equilibria, 418, 2016, Pages 62–73
10. Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., Bauman, J.M., Sjöblom, S., Kulkarni, A. A., Hydrate Formation during Transport of Natural Gas Containing Water and Impurities, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2016, 61 (2), pp 936–949
11. Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., Sapate, A., Qorbani, K., Thermodynamic implications of adding N2 to CO2 for production of CH4 from hydrates, Journal of Natural Gas Science & Engineering, 35, part B, pp. 1594-1608
12. Qorbani, K., Kvamme, B., Olsen, R., Non-equilibrium simulation of hydrate formation and dissociation from CO2 in the aqueous phase, Journal of Natural Gas Science & Engineering, 35, Part B, 2016, Pages 1555–1565
13. Qorbani, K., Kvamme, B., Non-equilibrium simulation of CH4 production through the depressurization method from gas hydrate reservoirs, Journal of Natural Gas Science & Engineering. 35, part b, 2016, pp 1544-1554
14. Tóth, G.I., Kvamme, B., Analysis of Ginzburg-Landau-type models of surfactant-assisted liquid phase separation. Phys.Rev. E 91, 032404 (2015).
15. Tóth, G.I, Kvamme, B., Phase field modelling of spinodal decomposition in the oil/water/asphaltene system. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 17, 20259 (2015).
16. Jensen, B., Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., The effect of interfacial charge distributions and terminations in LTA zeolites, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 2016. 224, 135-142
17. Toth, G.I., Zarifi, M., Kvamme, B., PRE 93, 013126 (2016).
18. Qorbani, K., Kvamme, B. & Olsen, R., Sensitivity analysis of CO2 injection within saline aquifers for storage purposes in the form of hydrate using a reactive transport simulator, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2016, 61 (12), pp 4148–4156
19. Olsen, R., Kvamme, B., Effect of glycol on adsorption dynamics of idealized water droplets on LTA-3A zeolite surfaces, AIChE,Journal 65, 5, 2019, e16567
20. Olsen, R., Nes Leirvik, K., Kvamme, B., Adsorption characteristics of glycols on calcite and hematite, THERMODYNAMICS AND MOLECULAR-SCALE PHENOMENA, 2019, AIChE Journal, 65(13), DOI: 10.1002/aic.16728
21. Richard Olsen, Kim Nes Leirvik, Bjørn Kvamme, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Effects of Sodium Chloride on Acidic Nanoscale Pores Between Steel and Cement, J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 29264−29271
22. Qorbani, K., B. Kvamme, B., Modeling of CH4 production through the depressurization method from Bjørnøya gas hydrate basin using reactive transport simulator, Proceeding of 12th International Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics (HEFAT), 11 – 13 July, 2016, Malaga, Spain
23. Qorbani, K., Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., Simulation of CO2 storage in the form of hydrate into methane hydrate reservoirs, Non-equilibrium thermodynamic approach, Energy Procedia, 2017, 114, 5451-5459
24. Bjørn Kvamme, Aruna Sapate, Hydrate Risk Evaluation during Transport and Processing of Natural Gas Mixtures containing Ethane and Methane, Research & Reviews: Journal of Chemistry, vol. 5, issue 3, 2016, e-ISSN: 2319-9849
25. Kim Nes Leirvik and Bjørn Kvamme, Solubility of carbon dioxide in water, submitted to J.Chem.Phys. B , 2016
26. Qorbani, K., Kvamme, B., Kuznetsova, T., Using a Reactive Transport Simulator to Simulate CH4 Production from Bear Island Basin in the Barents Sea Utilizing the Depressurization Method, Energies 2017, 10, 187
27. Bjørn Kvamme, Eirik Iden, Jørgen Tveit, Veronica Veland, Mojdeh Zarifi, Khadijeh Qorbani, Effect of H2S content on thermodynamic stability of hydrate formed from CO2/N2 mixtures, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2017, 62. 1645-1658
28. Bjørn Kvamme, Anette Beate Nesse Knarvik, Marthe Austrhei, Mojdeh Zarifi, Impact of solid surfaces on hydrate formation during processing and transport of hydrocarbons, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD), 2017, Volume 13, Issue 5, PP.01-16
29. Khaled Jemai, Mohammad Taghi Vafaei, Bjørn Kvammea,, Ashok Chejara, Simulation of CO2 hydrates formation in cold aquifers: non-equilibrium approach, Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 113.
30. G. I. Tóth, Juri Selvåg, B. Kvamme, Phenomenological Continuum Theory of Asphaltene-Stabilized Oil/Water Emulsions, Energy Fuels, 2017, 31 (2), pp 1218–1225
31. Tsutomu Uchida, Bjørn Kvamme, Richard Coffin, Norio Tenma, Ai Oyama and Stephen M. Masutani, Review of Fundamental Properties of Gas Hydrates Breakout Sessions of the International Workshop on Methane Hydrate Research and Development, Energies 2017, 10, 747; doi:10.3390/en10060747
32. Bjørn Kvamme, Solomon Aforkoghene Aromada, Risk of hydrate formation during processing and transport of Troll gas from the North Sea, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 2017, 62 (7), pp 2163–2177
33. Selvåg, J., Kuznetsova, T., Kvamme, B., Molecular dynamics study of surfactant-modified water–carbon dioxide systems, Molecular Simulation, 2018, Volume 44, 128-136
34. Bjørn Kvamme, Solomon Aforkoghene Aromada, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Petter Berge Gjerstad, Pablo Charles Canonge,
Mojdeh Zarifi, Maximum tolerance for water content at various stages of a Natuna production, Heat and Mass Transfer, 55, pages 1059–1079, (2019)
35. Kvamme, B., Aromada, S. A., Alternative Routes to Hydrate Formation during Processing and Transport
of Natural Gas with Significant Amount of CO2: Sleipner Gas as a Case Study, 2018, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 63(3)
36. Bjørn Kvamme, Juri Selvåg, Solomon Aforkoghene Aromada, Navid Saeidi, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Methanol as hydrate inhibitor and hydrate activator, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2018, 20, 21968-21987
37. Richard Coffin, Brandon Yoza, Stephen M. Masutani, Bjørn Kvamme, Tsutomu Uchida , Norio Tenma, and Ai Oyama, Review on Coastal Gas Hydrate Distributions Discussed at and Developed Through the International Methane Hydrate Research and Development Workshops, In preparation, 2024
38. Kvamme, B., Aromada, S. A., Saeidi, N., Hustache-Marmou, T. P. J., Gjerstad,, P., Hydrate Nucleation, growth and induction, 2019, ACS Omega, 2020, 5, 6, 2603-2619
39. Aromada, S., Kvamme, B., Impacts of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide on the risk of hydrate formation during pipeline transport of Natural gas., 2018, Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2019, 13, 616–627
40. Aromada, S.A., Kvamme, B., New Approach for Evaluating the Risk of Hydrate formation During
Transport of Hydrocarbon Hydrate formers of sI and sII, AIChE J, 65: 1097–1110, 2019
41. Selvåg, J., Kuznetsova, T., Kvamme, B., Molecular Dynamics Study of Morpholines at Water – Carbon Dioxide Interfaces, FPE, Volume 485, 15 April 2019, Pages 44-60
42. Bjørn Kvamme, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Per Olav Haaland, Emmanuel Chukwuma Okoye, Anita Løbø Viken, Bruno Maldonado de Oliveira, Heterogeneous and homogeneous hydrate nucleation in CH4/water systems containing methanol, 2019, in progress
43. Kvamme, B., Aromada, S.A., Saeidi, N., Heterogeneous and homogeneous hydrate nucleation in CO2/water systems, Journal of crystal growth, Volume 522, 15 September 2019, Pages 160-174
44. Mojdeh Zarifi, Bjørn Kvamme, Petter Gjerstad, Solomon Aforkoghene Aromada, Kinetics of hydrate formation and dissociation, 2019, Proceedings from HEFAT 2019
45. Kvamme, B., Environmentally friendly production of methane from natural gas hydrate using carbon dioxide, Sustainability 2019, 11(7), 1964;
46. Kvamme, B., Enthalpies of hydrate formation from hydrate formers dissolved in water, Energies 2019, 12, 1039;
47. Kvamme, B., Coffin, R. B., Wei, N. Zhou, S., Zhao, J., Li, Q., Saeidi, N., Yu-Chien Chien, Y.-C., Dunn-Rankin, D., Stages in dynamics of hydrate formation and consequences for design of experiments for hydrate formation in sediments, 2019, Energies, 12, 3399
48. Kvamme, B., Aromada, S.A., Berge Gjerstad, P., Consistent Enthalpies of the Hydrate Formation and Dissociation Using Residual Thermodynamics, 2019, J. Chem. Eng. Data, J. Chem. Eng. Data 2019, 64, 8, 3493–3504
49. Wei, N., Sun, W.,Meng, Y., Zhao, J., 1, Kvamme, B., Zhou, S., 1, Zhang, L., Li, Q., Zhang, Y., Jiang, L., Li, H., Pei, J., Hydrate Formation and Decomposition Regularities in Offshore Gas Reservoir Production Pipelines, Energies 2020, 13(1), 248
50. Kvamme, B.; Zhao, J.Z.; Wei N.; Sun, W.T.; Saeidi, N.; Pei, J.; Kuznetsova, T. Hydrate production philosophy and thermodynamic calculations. Energies 2020, 13, 672
51. Kvamme, B., Zhao, J., Wei, N., Saeidi, N., Hydrate—A Mysterious Phase or Just Misunderstood?, Energies 2020, 13, 880
52. Aromada, S.A.; Kvamme, B.; Wei, N.; Saeidi, N. Enthalpies of Hydrate Formation and Dissociation from Residual Thermodynamics. Energies 2019, 12, 4726, doi:10.3390/en12244726
53. Kvamme, B. 2020. Consistent Thermodynamic Calculations for Hydrate Properties and Hydrate Phase Transitions. . Chem. Eng. Data. 65(5): 2872–2893
54. Kvamme B., Zhao, J., Wei, N., Sun, W., Zarifi, M., Saeidi, N., Zhou, S., Kuznetsova, T., Li, Q., Why Should We Use Residual Thermodynamics for Calculation of Hydrate Phase Transitions?, Energies 2020, 13, 4135
55. Olsen, E., Leirvik, K. N., Kvamme, B., Adsorption characteristics of glycols on calcite and hematite, AIChE Jornal, 65, 11, 2019, e16728
56. Solomon Aforkoghene Aromada, Bjørn Kvamme, Modelling of Methane Hydrate Formation and Dissociation using Residual Thermodynamics, SNE – Simulation Notes Europe, SNE 31(3), 2021, 143-150, DOI: 10.11128/sne.31.tn.10575
57. Solomon Aforkoghene Aromada, Bjørn Kvamme, Simulation of Hydrate Plug Prevention in Natural Gas Pipeline from Bohai Bay to Onshore Facilities in China, SNE 31(3), 2021, 151-157, DOI: 10.11128/sne.31.tn.10576
58. Bjørn Kvamme, Kinetics of hydrate formation, dissociation and reformation, Chemical Thermodynamics and Thermal Analysis, Volumes 1–2, March 2021, 100004
59. Bjørn Kvamme, Matthew Clarke, Hydrate Phase Transition Kinetic Modeling for Nature and
Industry–Where Are We and Where Do We Go?, Energies 2021, 14, 4149
60. Wantong Sun, Na Wei, Jinzhou Zhao, Bjørn, Kvamme, Shouwei Zhou, Liehui Zhang, Stian Almenningen, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Geir Ersland, Qingping Li, Jun Pei, Cong Li, Chenyang Xiong, Xuncheng Shena, Imitating Possible Consequences of Drilling through Marine Hydrate Reservoir, Energy. Available online 18 August 2021, 121802
61. Wantong Sun, Jun Pei; Na Wei; Jinzhou Zhao; Jin Xue; Shouwei Zhou; Liehui Zhang; Bjørn Kvamme; Qingping Li; Haitao Li; Lin Jiang; Chao Zhang; Cong Li, Sensitivity analysis of reservoir risk in marine gas hydrate drilling, submitted to Petroleum, September 2021
62. Bjørn Kvamme, Jinzhou Zhao, Na Wei, Qingping Li, Navid Saeidi, Wantong Sun, Mojdeh Zarifi, Tatiana Kuznetsova, Thermodynamics of hydrate systems using a uniform reference state, Asia Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, in press, published online, https://doi.org/10.1002/apj.2706
63. Kvamme, B., Small Alcohols as Surfactants and Hydrate Promotors, Fluids, 2021, 6, 345. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids6100345
64. Kvamme, B., Saeidi, N., A zero emission scheme for producing energy from natural gas hydrates and conventional natural gas., Petroleum, 2021, 7 (4), 4, 364-384
65. Kvamme, B., Wei, N., Zhao, J., Zhou1, S., Zhang, L., Sun, W., Saeidi, N., Routes to hydrate formation from water dissolved in gas and impact of mineral surfaces. Petroleum, 7(4), 2021, 385-401
66. Kvamme, B., Wei, N., Zhao, J., Zhou1, S., Zhang, L., Sun, W., Saeidi, N., Alcohols for hydrate inhibition – different alcohols and different mechanisms, Petroleum, 2022, 8 (1), Pages 1-16
67. Saeidi, N., Dunn-Rankin, D., Kvamme, B., Chien, Y.-C., Experimental studies on combined production of CH4 and safe long-term storage of CO 2 in the form of solid hydrate in sediment, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2021, 23, 23313-23324
68. Kvamme, B., Small alcohols as hydrate promotors, Energy Fuels. 2021, 35, 21, 17663–17684
69. Kvamme, B., Thermodynamics and kinetic mechanisms for CH4/CO2 swapping in natural sediments, 2022, Energy Fuels, 36, 12, 6374–6396
70. Lauricella, M., Ghaani, M. R., Nandi, P. K., Meloni, S., Kvamme, B., English, N. J., Double Life of Methanol: Experimental Studies and Nonequilibrium Molecular-Dynamics Simulation of Methanol Effects on Methane-Hydrate Nucleation, J. Phys. Chem. C 2022, 126, 6075−6081
71. Kvamme, B., Mechanisms for CH4/CO2 Swapping in Natural Sediments Fluids 2022, 7, 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids7080260
72. Kvamme, B. Vasilev, A., Black Sea gas hydrates: safe long terms storage of CO2 with environmentally friendly energy production, Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 2023, 7, 1466-1493 DOI: 10.1039/D2SE01725C
73. Kvamme, B. Vasilev, A., Black Sea hydrate production value and options for clean energy production, RSC Adv., 2023, 13, 20610
74. Chen L, Merey S, Pecher I, Okajima, J, Komiya, A, Diaz-Naveas, J, Li, S, Maruyama, S, Kalachand, S, Kvamme, B, Coffin, R, A review analysis of gas hydrate tests: engineering progress and policy trend., Environmental Geotechnics, 2022, 9(4): 242–258, https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.19.00208
75. Pei, J., Wei, N., Zhang, B., Zhao, J., Kvamme, B., Coffin, R., Li, H., Bai, R., Imitating the effects of drilling fluid invasion on the strength behaviors of hydrate-bearing sediments: an experimental study, Frontiers in Earth Science, section Marine Geoscience, 2022, in press
76. Kvamme, B. Vasilev, A., Thermodynamic Feasibility of the Black Sea CH4 hydrate replacement by CO2 hydrate, Energies 2023, 16(3), 1223;
77. Olsen, R., Kvamme, B., Impact of ethylene glycol on ions influencing corrosion in pores between iron oxide and calcium carbonate, Molecular Simulation, 49:7, 664-677, DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2023.2184298
78. Kvamme, B., Vasilev, A., Danube Fan and Nyegga – the largest contrast European gas hydrate deposits for CO2 storing and CH4 and H2 production, International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 130 (2023) 104014
79. Li, H. Wei, N., Hu, H., Ge, Z., Jiang, L., Liu, F., Wang, X., Zhang, C., Xu, H., Pei, J., Kvamme, B., The Law of Liquid–Solid Carrying in the Wellbore of Natural Gas Hydrate Gas Well under the Condition of Foam Drainage Gas Recovery, Energies, 2023, 16, 2414. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052414
80. Wei,N., Sun, W.,Meng, Y., Zhao, J., Kvamme, B., Shouwei, Z., Zhang, L., Li, Q., Zhang, Y., Jiang, L., Haitao, L., Pei, J., Hydrate Formation and Decomposition Regularities in Offshore Gas Reservoir Production Pipelines, Energies 2020, 13(1), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13010248
81. Tsutomu Uchida, Bjørn Kvamme, Richard B. Coffin, Norio Tenma, Ai Oyama, Stephen M. Masutani, Review of Fundamental Properties of Gas Hydrates:Breakout Sessions of the International Workshop on Methane Hydrate Research and Development, Energies, 2017, 10, 747
82. Wei, N. Pei, J., Li, H., Zhou, S., Zhao, J., Kvamme, B., Coffin, R. B., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Xue, J., Classification of natural gas hydrate resources: Review, application and prospect, Gas Science and Engineering, Available online 14 March 2024, 205269
83. Kvamme, B., Wei, N., Xua, H., Guoa, B., Lia, H., Zhanga, Y., Qiua, T., Zhanga, C., Vasilev, A., Environmentally friendly production of petroleum systems with high CO2
content, Next Energy, 5 (2024) 100179